IB Physics: SL and HL Compared

SLSLHLHL

Explore IB Physics through motion, matter, waves, fields, nuclear and quantum physics. Compare SL and HL requirements, choose your course and use the syllabus checklist to plan a focused next step.

Course resources

Related tools

Explore the IB Physics syllabus and topics

Physics connects observations with models that can be tested. In a falling-object problem, for example, choosing the system and deciding which forces matter comes before selecting an equation. Use the syllabus to connect that reasoning with experiments, graphs and quantitative evidence.

Open Question Bank, Documents or a study tool for this subject. Choose your course level here, or continue to a resource and select it when needed. Notes availability is shown by the resource navigation; a syllabus objective does not guarantee published notes.

SourceInternational Baccalaureate Organization · Physics subject brief, first assessment 2025, curriculum overview pp. 2–3First assessment 2025

Open your registered course for its syllabus, assessment guide and available resources: Physics SL · Physics HL.

IB Physics scope and course choices

The current IB Physics curriculum is organized through five broad themes and explored using the permeating concepts forces, energy and particles. HL and SL differ in scope and depth.

  • First assessment 2025Current Physics guide and assessment model
  • 5 organizing themesThemes are explored through forces, energy and particles
  • 2 levelsChoose HL or SL for the exact syllabus and paper structure
  • Choosing between SL and HLUse the comparison below to check the extra topics and the additional demands within shared topics. Discuss your subject combination and school arrangements with your teacher; check specific university requirements directly.
  • Already studying PhysicsOpen the level you are studying for its exact assessment format. Shared objectives retain the same learning progress across this overview and the level pages; switching scope does not create a second set of achievements.

SourceInternational Baccalaureate Organization · IB Physics course and assessment evidenceIB Physics · First assessment 2025

IB Physics SL vs HL: compare syllabus topics

Check the scope of each topic, not just its name. Shared topics can include additional HL objectives; the five HL-only topics are identified separately.

SL

Study the shared foundations and the objectives applicable to Standard Level.

150 recommended teaching hours

110 syllabus hours · 40 experimental hours

HL

Study the shared foundations, additional requirements within shared topics and the five HL-only topics.

240 recommended teaching hours

180 syllabus hours · 60 experimental hours

A. Space, time and motion

Both levels develop translational mechanics. HL also studies rotational models and relativity; those additional topics are listed separately below.

SL

HL

A.1 Kinematics

SL · Connect motion diagrams and graphs with displacement, velocity and acceleration.

HL · The same listed topic objectives apply at both levels.

A.2 Forces and momentum

SL · Choose forces and a system before applying momentum or circular-motion reasoning.

HL · The same listed topic objectives apply at both levels.

A.3 Work, energy and power

SL · Track work, energy transfer and power with a consistent system boundary.

HL · The same listed topic objectives apply at both levels.

B. The particulate nature of matter

Both levels connect thermal, gas and electrical models. HL adds thermodynamic processes, entropy and heat engines.

SL

HL

B.1 Thermal energy transfers

SL · Explain energy transfer using particle behaviour and measurable thermal quantities.

HL · The same listed topic objectives apply at both levels.

B.2 Greenhouse effect

SL · Use energy balance to reason about radiation, absorption and the greenhouse effect.

HL · The same listed topic objectives apply at both levels.

B.3 Gas laws

SL · Relate gas variables to the ideal-gas model and its assumptions.

HL · The same listed topic objectives apply at both levels.

B.5 Current and circuits

SL · Connect charge flow and potential difference to circuit measurements and energy transfer.

HL · The same listed topic objectives apply at both levels.

C. Wave behaviour

The same five topics appear at both levels. HL adds specific mathematical and diffraction requirements within some of them.

SL

HL

C.1 Simple harmonic motion

SL · Describe oscillations and connect restoring behaviour with the motion of the system.

HL · The SL scope also applies. Add phase-angle treatment and time-dependent displacement and velocity equations.

C.2 Wave model

SL · Use wave representations to relate propagation, wavelength, frequency and speed.

HL · The same listed topic objectives apply at both levels.

C.3 Wave phenomena

SL · Explain reflection, refraction, interference and diffraction with an appropriate representation.

HL · The SL scope also applies. Add single-slit envelopes and diffraction-grating analysis.

C.4 Standing waves and resonance

SL · Identify nodes, boundary conditions and resonance in a physical system.

HL · The same listed topic objectives apply at both levels.

C.5 Doppler effect

SL · Explain a frequency shift from relative motion and apply the selected SL relationships.

HL · The SL scope also applies. Add the mechanical-wave relationships for moving sources and observers.

D. Fields

Both levels study fields and motion. HL adds potential-based analysis within shared topics and a separate induction topic.

SL

HL

D.1 Gravitational fields

SL · Relate gravitational force and field strength to masses and separation.

HL · The SL scope also applies. Add potential, equipotentials, escape and orbital-energy analysis.

D.2 Electric and magnetic fields

SL · Represent electric and magnetic interactions with fields, forces and direction.

HL · The SL scope also applies. Add electric potential energy, potential gradients and equipotentials.

D.3 Motion in electromagnetic fields

SL · Analyse charged-particle motion and the forces associated with currents and fields.

HL · The same listed topic objectives apply at both levels.

E. Nuclear and quantum physics

Both levels study atomic and nuclear models. HL adds quantitative requirements within shared topics and a separate quantum-physics topic.

SL

HL

E.1 Structure of the atom

SL · Use scattering and spectra as evidence for atomic structure and energy levels.

HL · The SL scope also applies. Add nuclear-size and closest-approach reasoning and the quantitative Bohr model.

E.3 Radioactive decay

SL · Explain decay processes, half-life, binding energy and their evidence.

HL · The SL scope also applies. Add decay constants and exponential models, with further nuclear-stability and spectral evidence.

E.4 Fission

SL · Account for energy release and the conditions of a fission chain reaction.

HL · The same listed topic objectives apply at both levels.

E.5 Fusion and stars

SL · Connect fusion, energy release and the physical interpretation of stars.

HL · The same listed topic objectives apply at both levels.

S Skills in Physics

These skills support the themes at both levels. A separate navigation group does not make them a sixth syllabus theme or an additional allocation of teaching hours.

SL

HL

S1.1 Experimental techniques

SL · Choose experimental techniques that suit the quantity being measured.

HL · The same listed topic objectives apply at both levels.

S1.2 Technology

SL · Use technology to collect, process and communicate physical evidence.

HL · The same listed topic objectives apply at both levels.

S1.3 Mathematics

SL · Apply mathematical tools with explicit units and sensible precision.

HL · The same listed topic objectives apply at both levels.

S2.1 Exploring and designing

SL · Connect a research question with variables and a workable method.

HL · The same listed topic objectives apply at both levels.

S2.2 Collecting and processing data

SL · Process measurements while considering uncertainty and the pattern in the data.

HL · The same listed topic objectives apply at both levels.

S2.3 Concluding and evaluating

SL · Make a supported conclusion and evaluate a specific methodological limitation.

HL · The same listed topic objectives apply at both levels.

Topics studied only at HL

These are separate HL topics. They are distinct from the extra HL requirements inside shared topics.

A.4 Rigid body mechanics · HL

Extend force and energy reasoning to torque, angular motion and rotational conservation.

A.5 Galilean and special relativity · HL

Compare inertial frames and use relativistic coordinates, intervals and spacetime representations.

B.4 Thermodynamics · HL

Analyse thermodynamic processes, entropy and heat-engine cycles with explicit system boundaries.

D.4 Induction · HL

Connect changing magnetic flux with induced emf and its direction.

E.2 Quantum physics · HL

Use photon and matter-wave evidence in photoelectric, diffraction and scattering problems.

Hours are IB-recommended teaching allocations for the whole course: SL 110 syllabus hours plus 40 experimental-programme hours; HL 180 plus 60. They are not exam timings, topic weightings or personal revision targets. No separate teaching-time allocation is implied for an individual objective or the integrated skills checklist.

SourceInternational Baccalaureate Organization · IB Physics subject brief, first assessment 2025IB Physics · First assessment 2025

Where to start

Choose one starting point, then keep each practice cycle tied to an objective you can explain.

Choose your starting point

  1. I know the topic

    Locate the objective in the full checklist, confirm its level and open the available resource beside it.

    Find a Physics objective

  2. I am unsure what is weak

    Choose an available diagnostic scope and use the questions to identify a concrete model, mathematical or evidence-handling gap.

    Open Physics Diagnostic

Model, retrieve, apply and repair

  1. Describe the model

    Draw the system and name the principle. Check the selected objective and explain why the model fits the situation.

    Check the objective

  2. Retrieve and test

    Reconstruct the relationship without copying a solution. Check the variables, units and what happens in a simple limiting case.

    Use the checklist

  3. Apply and repair

    Attempt a relevant question, inspect its available guidance and correct the first reasoning error before choosing another problem.

    Choose a question-bank level

How to study IB Physics

Build the physical model, check the representation and use errors to choose the next question within your course scope.

Choose the method that matches the Physics task

  • Choose a model before calculating

    Force diagrams, momentum and energy transfer

    Sketch the objects and interactions. Decide what belongs to the system, identify a conservation law or force relationship and state its assumptions. Only then substitute numbers, checking sign and units against the sketch.

    Find a modelling question

  • Read the representation carefully

    Motion graphs, wave diagrams and field lines

    Name the axes or diagram symbols and keep their units visible. Decide whether the question needs a gradient, area, direction or spatial relationship. Translate that feature into a physical statement before using an equation.

    Choose focused practice

  • Make the conclusion match the evidence

    Uncertainty, measured trends and experimental limitations

    State what the measurements show before explaining why. Identify a particular source of uncertainty or limitation and explain how it affects the conclusion. Propose an improvement that addresses that effect rather than a generic request for more accuracy.

    Check a data-handling gap

Build a consistent study approach

Start with one objective in the Physics syllabus checklist. Draw the system and state what you are assuming before selecting a relationship. Predict a direction or a rough size first: this gives you something to test when a calculation produces an unexpected result.

Use the SL/HL comparison to check the required scope, then open Physics SL or Physics HL for level-specific guidance. A useful correction records the decision that failed, such as confusing gradient with area, rather than only replacing a final number. Revisit the same skill in a different question to check whether the correction transfers.

Check Physics grade boundaries

Choose SL or HL, then check the report year, session and source status. Use the exact-level guide to distinguish an overall boundary from a paper or investigation row.

Missing reports are not zero thresholds. Historical ranges do not predict a future result, and a third-party reproduction remains subject to the verification notices shown with it.

SourceInternational Baccalaureate Organization · Assessment FAQ: results and grade-boundary information

IB Physics questions

This page follows the IB Physics course with first assessment in 2025.

The course is organised around space, time and motion; the particulate nature of matter; wave behaviour; fields; and nuclear and quantum physics.

Yes. Practical inquiry is part of the course and develops experimental, modelling and data-analysis skills.

SL and HL differ in depth, syllabus scope and assessment, so choosing a level opens the correct resources.

No. In wave behaviour, for example, HL adds requirements inside several topics that both levels study. Use the comparison and individual objective labels to distinguish shared foundations from extra HL content. The separate HL-only topics are not the whole difference between the courses.

SourceInternational Baccalaureate Organization · IB Physics subject brief, first assessment 2025IB Physics · First assessment 2025·Exam page

How the Physics syllabus is organised

  1. A. Space, time and motion

    5 topics · 76 objectivesSL / HL shared

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    1. A.1 KinematicsSL / HL shared

      1. A.1.1—Position, velocity and acceleration SL / HL shared

        • Describe motion using position, velocity and acceleration.

      2. A.1.2—Velocity and acceleration rates SL / HL shared

        • Velocity is the rate of change of position, and acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.

      3. A.1.3—Displacement SL / HL shared

        • Change in position is the displacement.

      4. A.1.4—Distance and displacement SL / HL shared

        • Distinguish distance and displacement.

      5. A.1.5—Instantaneous and average values SL / HL shared

        • Distinguish instantaneous vs average speed, velocity and acceleration.

      6. A.1.6—Uniform acceleration equations SL / HL shared

        • Use SUVAT equations for uniform acceleration: s=(u+v)t/2; v=u+at; s=ut+1/2at^2; v^2=u^2+2as. • Apply only to uniformly accelerated motion.

      7. A.1.7—Uniform vs non-uniform acceleration SL / HL shared

        • Motion with uniform and non-uniform acceleration.

      8. A.1.8—Projectile components SL / HL shared

        • Resolve projectile motion into horizontal and vertical components when fluid resistance is absent.

      9. A.1.9—Fluid resistance on projectiles SL / HL shared

        • Describe effects on trajectory, flight time, velocity, acceleration, range and terminal speed.

    2. A.2 Forces and momentumSL / HL shared

      1. A.2.1—Newton’s three laws of motion SL / HL shared

        • Newton’s three laws of motion.

      2. A.2.2—Forces as interactions between bodies SL / HL shared

        • Forces as interactions between bodies.

      3. A.2.3—Free-body diagrams SL / HL shared

        • Forces acting on a body can be represented in a free-body diagram.

      4. A.2.4—Resultant force from diagrams SL / HL shared

        • Free-body diagrams can be analysed to find the resultant force on a system.

      5. A.2.5—Contact forces SL / HL shared

        • Contact forces include normal, friction, tension, elastic restoring force, viscous drag and buoyancy.

      6. A.2.6—Normal force SL / HL shared

        • Normal force FN acts perpendicular to the contact surface.

      7. A.2.7—Frictional force SL / HL shared

        • Friction acts parallel to contact. • Static: Ff <= μsFN; dynamic: Ff = μdFN.

      8. A.2.8—Tension SL / HL shared

        • Tension.

      9. A.2.9—Hooke’s law restoring force SL / HL shared

        • Elastic restoring force follows Hooke’s law: FH = -kx.

      10. A.2.10—Viscous drag SL / HL shared

        • Viscous drag on a small sphere: Fd = 6πηrv, opposite motion. • η is fluid viscosity, r sphere radius, v speed through fluid.

      11. A.2.11—Buoyancy SL / HL shared

        • Buoyancy from displaced fluid: Fb = ρVg.

      12. A.2.12—Field forces SL / HL shared

        • Know field forces: gravitational, electric and magnetic.

      13. A.2.13—Weight SL / HL shared

        • Weight is gravitational force: Fg = mg.

      14. A.2.14—Electric force Fe SL / HL shared

        • Electric force Fe.

      15. A.2.15—Magnetic force Fm SL / HL shared

        • Magnetic force Fm.

      16. A.2.16—Linear momentum conservation SL / HL shared

        • Linear momentum p=mv is conserved unless a resultant external force acts.

      17. A.2.17—Impulse SL / HL shared

        • Impulse from resultant external force: J = FΔt = Δp.

      18. A.2.18—Impulse-momentum change SL / HL shared

        • The applied external impulse equals the change in momentum of the system.

      19. A.2.19—Newton’s second law forms SL / HL shared

        • Use F=ma for constant mass; use F=Δp/Δt when mass changes.

      20. A.2.20—Elastic and inelastic collisions SL / HL shared

        • Elastic and inelastic collisions of two bodies.

      21. A.2.21—Explosions SL / HL shared

        • Explosions.

      22. A.2.22—Collision energy SL / HL shared

        • Compare energy in elastic collisions, inelastic collisions and explosions.

      23. A.2.23—Centripetal acceleration SL / HL shared

        • Centripetal acceleration is radial: a=v^2/r=ω^2r=4π^2r/T^2. • Direction is radially toward the centre of the circle.

      24. A.2.24—Centripetal force SL / HL shared

        • Circular motion is caused by a centripetal force acting perpendicular to the velocity.

      25. A.2.25—Direction change in circular motion SL / HL shared

        • A centripetal force causes the body to change direction even if its magnitude of velocity may remain constant.

      26. A.2.26—Angular and linear speed SL / HL shared

        • Circular motion relation: v=2πr/T=ωr. • Use angular velocity ω and period T to link angular and linear descriptions.

    3. A.3 Work, energy and powerSL / HL shared

      1. A.3.1—Conservation of energy SL / HL shared

        • Principle of the conservation of energy.

      2. A.3.2—Work as energy transfer SL / HL shared

        • Work done by a force is equivalent to a transfer of energy.

      3. A.3.3—Sankey diagrams SL / HL shared

        • Energy transfers can be represented on a Sankey diagram.

      4. A.3.4—Work by constant force SL / HL shared

        • Work by constant force along displacement: W = Fs cos θ.

      5. A.3.5—Work-energy change SL / HL shared

        • Work done by the resultant force on a system is equal to the change in the energy of the system.

      6. A.3.6—Mechanical energy SL / HL shared

        • Mechanical energy includes kinetic, gravitational potential and elastic potential energy.

      7. A.3.7—Mechanical energy conservation SL / HL shared

        • Mechanical energy is conserved when friction/resistive forces are absent.

      8. A.3.8—Mechanical energy transformations SL / HL shared

        • If mechanical energy is conserved, work transforms energy between mechanical forms. • Relevant forms: translational kinetic, near-Earth gravitational potential and elastic potential.

      9. A.3.9—Kinetic energy SL / HL shared

        • Translational kinetic energy: Ek = 1/2mv^2 = p^2/2m.

      10. A.3.10—Gravitational potential energy SL / HL shared

        • Near Earth, gravitational potential energy change: ΔEp = mgΔh.

      11. A.3.11—Elastic potential energy SL / HL shared

        • Elastic potential energy: EH = 1/2k(Δx)^2.

      12. A.3.12—Power SL / HL shared

        • Power is rate of work or energy transfer: P=ΔW/Δt=Fv.

      13. A.3.13—Efficiency SL / HL shared

        • Efficiency: η=Eoutput/Einput=Poutput/Pinput.

      14. A.3.14—Fuel energy density SL / HL shared

        • Energy density of the fuel sources.

    4. A.4 Rigid body mechanicsHL only

      1. A.4.1 (HL)—Torque HL only

        • Torque about an axis: τ = Fr sin θ.

      2. A.4.2 (HL)—Rotational equilibrium HL only

        • Bodies in rotational equilibrium have a resultant torque of zero.

      3. A.4.3 (HL)—Unbalanced torque HL only

        • An unbalanced torque applied to an extended, rigid body will cause angular acceleration.

      4. A.4.4 (HL)—Angular motion quantities HL only

        • The rotation of a body can be described: angular displacement, angular velocity and angular acceleration.

      5. A.4.5 (HL)—Angular motion equations HL only

        • Use rotational SUVAT equations under uniform angular acceleration. • Variables include θ/Δθ, angular speed ω and angular acceleration α.

      6. A.4.6 (HL)—Moment of inertia HL only

        • Moment of inertia depends on mass distribution about the rotation axis.

      7. A.4.7 (HL)—Point-mass moment of inertia HL only

        • Point-mass moment of inertia: I = Σmr^2.

      8. A.4.8 (HL)—Rotational Newton’s second law HL only

        • Rotational Newton’s second law: τ = Iα.

      9. A.4.9 (HL)—Angular momentum HL only

        • Angular momentum of a rotating body: L = Iω.

      10. A.4.10 (HL)—Angular momentum conservation HL only

        • Angular momentum remains constant unless the body is acted upon by a resultant torque.

      11. A.4.11 (HL)—Angular impulse HL only

        • Angular impulse changes angular momentum: ΔL = τΔt = Δ(Iω).

      12. A.4.12 (HL)—Rotational kinetic energy HL only

        • Rotational kinetic energy: Ek = 1/2Iω^2 = L^2/2I.

    5. A.5 Galilean and special relativityHL only

      1. A.5.1 (HL)—Reference frames HL only

        • Reference frames.

      2. A.5.2 (HL)—Galilean relativity HL only

        • Galilean relativity: Newton’s laws are identical in all inertial frames.

      3. A.5.3 (HL)—Galilean transformations HL only

        • Galilean transformations: x′=x-vt and t′=t.

      4. A.5.4 (HL)—Galilean velocity addition HL only

        • Galilean velocity addition: u′=u-v.

      5. A.5.5 (HL)—Two postulates of special relativity HL only

        • Two postulates of special relativity.

      6. A.5.6 (HL)—Lorentz transformations HL only

        • Lorentz transformations relate event coordinates between inertial frames. • Use γ and the two inertial-frame coordinates x, t and x′, t′.

      7. A.5.7 (HL)—Relativistic velocity addition HL only

        • Relativistic velocity addition: u′=(u-v)/(1-uv/c^2).

      8. A.5.8 (HL)—Space-time interval HL only

        • Space-time interval is invariant: (Δs)^2=(cΔt)^2-(Δx)^2.

      9. A.5.9 (HL)—Proper time interval and proper length HL only

        • Proper time interval and proper length.

      10. A.5.10 (HL)—Time dilation HL only

        • Time dilation: Δt = γΔt0.

      11. A.5.11 (HL)—Length contraction HL only

        • Length contraction: L = L0/γ.

      12. A.5.12 (HL)—Relativity of simultaneity HL only

        • Relativity of simultaneity.

      13. A.5.13 (HL)—Space-time diagrams HL only

        • Space-time diagrams.

      14. A.5.14 (HL)—World lines and speed HL only

        • On space-time diagrams, world-line angle relates to speed: tan θ = v/c.

      15. A.5.15 (HL)—Muon decay evidence HL only

        • Muon decay is experimental evidence for time dilation and length contraction.

  2. B. The particulate nature of matter

    5 topics · 63 objectivesSL / HL shared

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    1. B.1 Thermal energy transfersSL / HL shared

      1. B.1.1—Molecular states SL / HL shared

        • Describe solids, liquids and gases using molecular theory.

      2. B.1.2—Density SL / HL shared

        • Density: ρ=m/V.

      3. B.1.3—Temperature scales SL / HL shared

        • Use Kelvin and Celsius temperature scales.

      4. B.1.4—Temperature scale changes SL / HL shared

        • Temperature change has the same size in Kelvin and Celsius.

      5. B.1.5—Kelvin temperature and kinetic energy SL / HL shared

        • Kelvin temperature measures average particle kinetic energy: Ek=3/2 kBT.

      6. B.1.6—Internal energy SL / HL shared

        • Internal energy = intermolecular potential energy + random molecular kinetic energy.

      7. B.1.7—Thermal transfer direction SL / HL shared

        • Temperature difference sets the net direction of thermal energy transfer.

      8. B.1.8—Phase change SL / HL shared

        • Phase change changes particle behaviour via energy transfer at constant temperature.

      9. B.1.9—Specific heat and latent heat SL / HL shared

        • Use Q=mcΔT for temperature change and Q=mL for phase change.

      10. B.1.10—Thermal transfer mechanisms SL / HL shared

        • Conduction, convection and thermal radiation are the primary mechanisms for thermal energy transfer.

      11. B.1.11—Conduction SL / HL shared

        • Conduction: the difference in the kinetic energy of particles.

      12. B.1.12—Conduction rate SL / HL shared

        • Conduction rate depends on material, area and temperature gradient: ΔQ/Δt = kAΔT/Δx.

      13. B.1.13—Convection SL / HL shared

        • Qualitative description of thermal energy transferred by convection due to fluid density differences.

      14. B.1.14—Black-body radiation SL / HL shared

        • Black-body radiation power follows Stefan-Boltzmann law: L=σAT^4. • Applies to emission of electromagnetic waves from a black-body surface.

      15. B.1.15—Apparent brightness SL / HL shared

        • Concept of apparent brightness b.

      16. B.1.16—Luminosity and brightness SL / HL shared

        • Apparent brightness relation: b = L/(4πd^2).

      17. B.1.17—Wien’s displacement law SL / HL shared

        • Use black-body spectrum and Wien’s law: λmaxT = 2.9x10^-3 m K. • Use λmax to infer black-body temperature.

    2. B.2 Greenhouse effectSL / HL shared

      1. B.2.1—Conservation of energy SL / HL shared

        • Conservation of energy.

      2. B.2.2—Emissivity SL / HL shared

        • Emissivity compares surface radiation per unit area with a black body: ε = power/(σT^4).

      3. B.2.3—Albedo SL / HL shared

        • Albedo = total scattered power / total incident power.

      4. B.2.4—Earth’s albedo variation SL / HL shared

        • Earth’s albedo varies daily with cloud formation and latitude.

      5. B.2.5—Solar constant S SL / HL shared

        • Solar constant S.

      6. B.2.6—Mean solar intensity SL / HL shared

        • Mean incoming solar intensity is S/4 due to planetary geometry.

      7. B.2.7—Greenhouse gases SL / HL shared

        • Main greenhouse gases: CH4, H2O, CO2 and N2O from natural and human sources. • Greenhouse gases have both natural and human-created origins.

      8. B.2.8—Infrared absorption SL / HL shared

        • Greenhouse gases absorb IR via molecular energy levels. • Radiation is re-emitted in all directions.

      9. B.2.9—Greenhouse models SL / HL shared

        • Explain greenhouse effect using resonance and molecular energy-level models.

      10. B.2.10—Enhanced greenhouse effect SL / HL shared

        • Enhanced greenhouse effect = augmentation due to human activity.

    3. B.3 Gas lawsSL / HL shared

      1. B.3.1—Pressure SL / HL shared

        • Pressure: P=F/A for force perpendicular to a surface.

      2. B.3.2—Amount of substance SL / HL shared

        • Amount of substance: n=N/NA.

      3. B.3.3—Ideal gas model SL / HL shared

        • Ideal gases are kinetic-theory models that approximate real gas behaviour.

      4. B.3.4—Empirical gas laws SL / HL shared

        • Empirical gas laws combine to PV/T = constant.

      5. B.3.5—Ideal gas equations SL / HL shared

        • Ideal gas equations: PV=NkBT and PV=nRT.

      6. B.3.6—Molecular pressure model SL / HL shared

        • Pressure arises from molecular momentum changes in collisions with surfaces. • Average translational speed relation: P = 1/3 ρv^2.

      7. B.3.7—Ideal gas internal energy SL / HL shared

        • Internal energy of ideal monatomic gas: U=3/2 NkBT = 3/2 nRT.

      8. B.3.8—Ideal gas approximation limits SL / HL shared

        • State temperature, pressure and density conditions for ideal-gas approximation.

    4. B.4 ThermodynamicsHL only

      1. B.4.1 (HL)—First law of thermodynamics HL only

        • First law for closed systems: Q = ΔU + W.

      2. B.4.2 (HL)—Gas work HL only

        • Work done by/on a gas from pressure-volume change: W = PΔV.

      3. B.4.3 (HL)—Internal energy change HL only

        • The change in internal energy: ΔU = 3 2 NkBΔT = 3 2nRΔT of a system is related to the change of its temperature.

      4. B.4.4 (HL)—Entropy and disorder HL only

        • Entropy relates to microscopic disorder of particles in a system.

      5. B.4.5 (HL)—Entropy equations HL only

        • Entropy change: ΔS=ΔQ/T. • Statistical entropy: S=kB ln Ω.

      6. B.4.6 (HL)—Second law of thermodynamics HL only

        • Second law: entropy of an isolated system never decreases.

      7. B.4.7 (HL)—Irreversibility HL only

        • Real isolated processes are usually irreversible; entropy tends to increase.

      8. B.4.8 (HL)—Local entropy decrease HL only

        • Local entropy can decrease in a non-isolated system if surroundings increase more. • Surroundings must increase entropy enough for total entropy to increase.

      9. B.4.9 (HL)—Gas processes HL only

        • Know isovolumetric, isobaric, isothermal and adiabatic gas processes. • Processes keep one state variable or heat transfer condition fixed.

      10. B.4.10 (HL)—Adiabatic ideal gas HL only

        • Adiabatic monatomic ideal gas: PV^(5/3)=constant.

      11. B.4.11 (HL)—Heat engine cycles HL only

        • Cyclic gas processes underpin heat engines.

      12. B.4.12 (HL)—Heat engine efficiency HL only

        • Heat engine efficiency: η=W/QH=1-QC/QH.

      13. B.4.13 (HL)—Carnot efficiency limit HL only

        • Carnot efficiency limit: ηCarnot = 1 - TC/TH.

    5. B.5 Current and circuitsSL / HL shared

      1. B.5.1—Cells provide a source of emf SL / HL shared

        • Cells provide a source of emf.

      2. B.5.2—Electrical energy sources SL / HL shared

        • Chemical cells and solar cells are energy sources in circuits. • Compare the advantages and disadvantages of different sources of electrical energy.

      3. B.5.3—Resistance SL / HL shared

        • Explain the properties of electrical conductors and insulators in terms of the mobility of charge carriers. • Explain electrical resistance and its origin. • Use electrical resistance R=V/I.

      4. B.5.4—Ohmic behaviour SL / HL shared

        • Apply Ohm’s law: for an ohmic metal conductor at constant temperature, V ∝ I. • Distinguish ohmic and non-ohmic behaviour of electrical conductors, including the heating effect of resistors.

      5. B.5.5—Electrical power SL / HL shared

        • Electrical power: P=IV=I^2R=V^2/R.

      6. B.5.6—Potential difference and electrical energy transfer SL / HL shared

        • Electric potential difference V is the work done W per unit charge q on moving a positive charge between two points along the path of the current: V=W/q. • Relate electrical energy transfer to power and time: E=Pt=IVt.

      7. B.5.7—Electric cells SL / HL shared

        • Cells convert chemical energy to electrical energy.

      8. B.5.8—Circuit diagrams and conventional current SL / HL shared

        • Circuit diagrams represent the arrangement of components in a circuit; use the required electrical circuit symbols provided in the Physics data booklet. • Conventional current follows the direction of positive charge flow. • Treat ammeters and voltmeters as ideal unless stated otherwise; a stated non-ideal meter has constant resistance.

      9. B.5.9—Direct current and charge flow SL / HL shared

        • Direct current I is a flow of charge carriers in one direction, with I=Δq/Δt. • Alternating-current circuit analysis is not required.

      10. B.5.10—Direct and alternating current boundary SL / HL shared

        • Distinguish direct current, whose direction does not reverse, from alternating current, whose direction reverses. • This distinction defines the syllabus boundary only; alternating-current circuit analysis is not required.

      11. B.5.11—Conservation in series and parallel circuits SL / HL shared

        • Use conservation of charge to explain why currents add at a junction in a parallel circuit. • Use conservation of energy to explain why potential differences add in a series circuit. • General multi-loop circuit analysis is not required.

      12. B.5.12—Resistance and resistivity SL / HL shared

        • Resistance depends on resistivity and dimensions: R=ρL/A.

      13. B.5.13—Series and parallel circuits SL / HL shared

        • Use series/parallel rules for current, voltage and equivalent resistance. • Series: same current; voltages and resistances add. • Parallel: same voltage; currents add; reciprocal resistance adds.

      14. B.5.14—Emf and internal resistance SL / HL shared

        • Cell emf with internal resistance: ε = I(R+r).

      15. B.5.15—Variable resistance SL / HL shared

        • Resistors can have variable resistance. • Variable resistors are limited to thermistors, light-dependent resistors (LDRs) and potentiometers.

  3. C. Wave behaviour

    5 topics · 39 objectivesSL / HL shared

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    1. C.1 Simple harmonic motionSL / HL shared

      1. C.1.1—Conditions for SHM SL / HL shared

        • Conditions that lead to simple harmonic motion.

      2. C.1.2—SHM defining equation SL / HL shared

        • SHM defining equation: a = -ω^2x.

      3. C.1.3—SHM quantities SL / HL shared

        • Describe SHM using T, f, ω, amplitude, equilibrium position and displacement.

      4. C.1.4—Period, frequency and angular frequency SL / HL shared

        • Oscillation period relations: T=1/f=2π/ω.

      5. C.1.5—Mass–spring period SL / HL shared

        • The time period of a mass–spring system is T=2π√(m/k).

      6. C.1.6—Simple pendulum period SL / HL shared

        • The time period of a simple pendulum in the small-angle approximation is T=2π√(l/g).

      7. C.1.7—Qualitative energy changes in SHM SL / HL shared

        • Describe qualitatively how kinetic and potential energy change during one cycle of an oscillation; total mechanical energy remains constant for an ideal oscillator.

      8. C.1.8 (HL)—Phase angle HL only

        • HL: include phase angle in SHM descriptions.

      9. C.1.9 (HL)—SHM equations HL only

        • HL: solve SHM with x=x0 sin(ωt) and v=v0 cos(ωt).

    2. C.2 Wave modelSL / HL shared

      1. C.2.1—Transverse and longitudinal travelling waves SL / HL shared

        • Distinguish transverse and longitudinal travelling waves by comparing particle or field oscillation with the direction of propagation and energy transfer. • Describe the motion of particles in a medium using displacement with position and with time.

      2. C.2.2—Wave quantities and wave equation SL / HL shared

        • Apply wavelength λ, frequency f, time period T and wave speed v to wave motion using v=fλ=λ/T.

      3. C.2.3—Nature of sound waves SL / HL shared

        • Explain sound as a mechanical longitudinal wave, including particle oscillations, compressions and rarefactions, and energy transfer through a medium.

      4. C.2.4—Nature of electromagnetic waves SL / HL shared

        • Explain electromagnetic waves as transverse oscillating electric and magnetic fields that can propagate through a vacuum. • Use the approximate wavelength orders of magnitude in the Physics data booklet without treating them as sharp boundaries.

      5. C.2.5—Mechanical and electromagnetic wave models SL / HL shared

        • Compare mechanical waves, which require a medium, with electromagnetic waves, which can travel through a vacuum. • Travelling waves transfer energy even when there is no resultant displacement of the medium. • Apply the wave model to both mechanical and electromagnetic waves.

    3. C.3 Wave phenomenaSL / HL shared

      1. C.3.1—Wavefronts and rays SL / HL shared

        • Waves travelling in two and three dimensions can be described through the concepts of wavefronts and rays.

      2. C.3.2—Snell’s law SL / HL shared

        • Snell’s law: n1 sinθ1 = n2 sinθ2.

      3. C.3.3—Refractive index SL / HL shared

        • Refractive index: n=c/v.

      4. C.3.4—Total internal reflection SL / HL shared

        • Total internal reflection condition uses critical angle: sinθc=n2/n1.

      5. C.3.5—Superposition SL / HL shared

        • Superposition adds displacements where waves overlap.

      6. C.3.6—Coherence SL / HL shared

        • Coherence requires constant phase difference between waves.

      7. C.3.7—Path difference SL / HL shared

        • Path difference determines constructive or destructive interference.

      8. C.3.8—Two-source interference SL / HL shared

        • Two-source interference depends on path difference and wavelength.

      9. C.3.9—Young double-slit equation SL / HL shared

        • Young double-slit spacing: s = λD/d.

      10. C.3.10—Reflection, refraction and transmission at boundaries SL / HL shared

        • Explain wave behaviour at boundaries in terms of reflection, refraction and transmission. • Sketch and interpret incident, reflected and transmitted wavefronts and rays at normal or oblique incidence within the syllabus guidance.

      11. C.3.11—Diffraction around bodies and through apertures SL / HL shared

        • Explain diffraction around a body and through an aperture. • Use wavefront–ray diagrams to represent diffraction, and relate greater spreading qualitatively to wavelength and aperture size.

      12. C.3.12 (HL)—Single-slit diffraction HL only

        • Single-slit diffraction depends on slit width and wavelength.

      13. C.3.13 (HL)—Diffraction envelope HL only

        • Single-slit diffraction envelope modulates double-slit interference.

      14. C.3.14 (HL)—Diffraction gratings HL only

        • Diffraction grating maxima: nλ = d sinθ.

    4. C.4 Standing waves and resonanceSL / HL shared

      1. C.4.1—Standing wave formation SL / HL shared

        • Standing waves form by superposition of identical opposite-travelling waves.

      2. C.4.2—Nodes and antinodes SL / HL shared

        • Identify nodes, antinodes, amplitude and phase along standing waves. • Include relative amplitude and phase difference along the standing wave.

      3. C.4.3—Strings and pipes SL / HL shared

        • Know standing-wave patterns in strings and pipes.

      4. C.4.4—Resonance SL / HL shared

        • Resonance relates driving frequency, natural frequency and amplitude.

      5. C.4.5—Damping and resonance SL / HL shared

        • Damping reduces maximum amplitude and shifts resonant frequency.

      6. C.4.6—Types of damping SL / HL shared

        • Compare light, critical and heavy damping effects.

    5. C.5 Doppler effectSL / HL shared

      1. C.5.1—Doppler effect SL / HL shared

        • Nature of the Doppler effect for sound waves and electromagnetic waves.

      2. C.5.2—Doppler wavefront diagrams SL / HL shared

        • Represent Doppler effect with wavefront diagrams for moving source or observer.

      3. C.5.3—Light Doppler approximation SL / HL shared

        • For light at low relative speed: Δf/f = Δλ/λ ≈ v/c.

      4. C.5.4—Spectral line shifts SL / HL shared

        • Spectral line shifts reveal motion of stars and galaxies.

      5. C.5.5 (HL)—Mechanical-wave Doppler formulas HL only

        • HL: Doppler formulas for sound/mechanical waves. • Distinguish moving-source and moving-observer cases.

  4. D. Fields

    4 topics · 45 objectivesSL / HL shared

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    1. D.1 Gravitational fieldsSL / HL shared

      1. D.1.1—Kepler’s three laws of orbital motion SL / HL shared

        • Kepler’s three laws of orbital motion.

      2. D.1.2—Universal gravitation SL / HL shared

        • Universal gravitation: F=Gm1m2/r^2 for point masses.

      3. D.1.3—Point-mass approximation SL / HL shared

        • Extended bodies can be treated as point masses only under suitable conditions.

      4. D.1.4—Gravitational field strength SL / HL shared

        • Gravitational field strength: g=F/m=GM/r^2.

      5. D.1.5—Gravitational field lines SL / HL shared

        • Gravitational field lines.

      6. D.1.6 (HL)—Gravitational potential energy HL only

        • Gravitational potential energy is work to assemble masses from infinite separation.

      7. D.1.7 (HL)—Two-body potential energy HL only

        • Two-body gravitational potential energy: Ep=-Gm1m2/r.

      8. D.1.8 (HL)—Gravitational potential HL only

        • Gravitational potential: Vg=-GM/r, zero at infinity.

      9. D.1.9 (HL)—Potential gradient HL only

        • Field strength is potential gradient: g=-ΔVg/Δr.

      10. D.1.10 (HL)—Work in gravitational fields HL only

        • Work in gravitational field: W=mΔVg.

      11. D.1.11 (HL)—Gravitational equipotentials HL only

        • Equipotential surfaces for gravitational fields.

      12. D.1.12 (HL)—Equipotentials and field lines HL only

        • Relationship between equipotential surfaces and gravitational field lines. • Equipotential surfaces are perpendicular to field lines.

      13. D.1.13 (HL)—Escape speed HL only

        • Escape speed: vesc=sqrt(2GM/r).

      14. D.1.14 (HL)—Orbital speed HL only

        • Circular orbital speed: vorbital=sqrt(GM/r).

      15. D.1.15 (HL)—Atmospheric drag on orbits HL only

        • Small atmospheric drag changes both height and speed of an orbiting body.

    2. D.2 Electric and magnetic fieldsSL / HL shared

      1. D.2.1—Electric charge forces SL / HL shared

        • Direction of forces between the two types of electric charge.

      2. D.2.2—Coulomb’s law SL / HL shared

        • Coulomb’s law: F=kq1q2/r^2 for point charges; k=1/(4πε0).

      3. D.2.3—Charge conservation SL / HL shared

        • Conservation of electric charge.

      4. D.2.4—Millikan experiment SL / HL shared

        • Millikan’s experiment as evidence for quantization of electric charge.

      5. D.2.5—Charge transfer SL / HL shared

        • Charge transfers by friction, electrostatic induction or contact. • Grounding can remove or add charge.

      6. D.2.6—Electric field strength SL / HL shared

        • Electric field strength: E=F/q.

      7. D.2.7—Electric field lines SL / HL shared

        • Electric field lines.

      8. D.2.8—Field-line density SL / HL shared

        • Relationship between field line density and field strength. • Greater field-line density indicates stronger field.

      9. D.2.9—Parallel-plate field SL / HL shared

        • Uniform field between plates: E=V/d.

      10. D.2.10—Magnetic field lines SL / HL shared

        • Magnetic field lines.

      11. D.2.11 (HL)—Electric potential energy HL only

        • Electric potential energy is work to assemble charges from infinite separation.

      12. D.2.12 (HL)—Two-charge potential energy HL only

        • Two-charge electric potential energy: Ep=kq1q2/r.

      13. D.2.13 (HL)—Electric potential as scalar HL only

        • The electric potential is a scalar quantity with zero defined at infinity.

      14. D.2.14 (HL)—Electric potential HL only

        • Electric potential: Ve=kQ/r, zero at infinity.

      15. D.2.15 (HL)—Electric potential gradient HL only

        • Electric field strength is potential gradient: E=-ΔVe/Δr.

      16. D.2.16 (HL)—Work in electric fields HL only

        • Work moving charge in electric field: W=qΔVe.

      17. D.2.17 (HL)—Electric equipotentials HL only

        • Equipotential surfaces for electric fields. • No work is done moving along an equipotential surface.

      18. D.2.18 (HL)—Equipotentials and electric fields HL only

        • Relationship between equipotential surfaces and electric field lines. • Equipotential surfaces are perpendicular to electric field lines.

    3. D.3 Motion in electromagnetic fieldsSL / HL shared

      1. D.3.1—Charge in electric fields SL / HL shared

        • Motion of a charged particle in a uniform electric field.

      2. D.3.2—Charge in magnetic fields SL / HL shared

        • Motion of a charged particle in a uniform magnetic field.

      3. D.3.3—Crossed electric and magnetic fields SL / HL shared

        • Charged particles can move in perpendicular uniform electric and magnetic fields.

      4. D.3.4—Magnetic force on charge SL / HL shared

        • Magnetic force on moving charge: F=qvB sinθ.

      5. D.3.5—Force on current conductor SL / HL shared

        • Force on current-carrying conductor: F=BIL sinθ.

      6. D.3.6—Force between parallel wires SL / HL shared

        • Force per unit length between parallel wires: F/L=μ0I1I2/(2πr). • Parallel currents attract when currents flow in the same direction.

    4. D.4 InductionHL only

      1. D.4.1 (HL)—Magnetic flux HL only

        • Magnetic flux: Φ=BA cosθ.

      2. D.4.2 (HL)—Faraday’s law HL only

        • Faraday’s law: changing magnetic flux induces emf ε=-NΔΦ/Δt.

      3. D.4.3 (HL)—Motional emf HL only

        • Motional emf in a straight conductor: ε=BvL.

      4. D.4.4 (HL)—Lenz’s law HL only

        • Lenz’s law gives induced emf direction and reflects energy conservation. • Direction of induced emf opposes the change that produces it.

      5. D.4.5 (HL)—Rotating-coil emf HL only

        • Rotating coil in uniform magnetic field produces sinusoidal emf.

      6. D.4.6 (HL)—Rotation frequency and emf HL only

        • Increasing rotation frequency increases induced emf characteristics.

  5. E. Nuclear and quantum physics

    5 topics · 53 objectivesSL / HL shared

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    1. E.1 Structure of the atomSL / HL shared

      1. E.1.1—Rutherford experiment SL / HL shared

        • Geiger-Marsden-Rutherford experiment and the discovery of the nucleus.

      2. E.1.2—Nuclear notation SL / HL shared

        • Use nuclear notation: A = nucleon number, Z = proton number, X = element symbol.

      3. E.1.3—Atomic energy levels SL / HL shared

        • Emission and absorption spectra provide evidence for discrete atomic energy levels.

      4. E.1.4—Atomic transitions SL / HL shared

        • Photons are emitted/absorbed during transitions between atomic energy levels.

      5. E.1.5—Photon energy SL / HL shared

        • Photon energy in atomic transition: E=hf.

      6. E.1.6—Spectra and composition SL / HL shared

        • Use emission and absorption spectra to infer chemical composition.

      7. E.1.7 (HL)—Nuclear radius HL only

        • Nuclear radius scales with nucleon number: R=R0 A^(1/3); implies near-constant density. • Relationship implies approximately constant nuclear density.

      8. E.1.8 (HL)—High-energy scattering deviations HL only

        • Deviations from Rutherford scattering at high energies.

      9. E.1.9 (HL)—Closest approach HL only

        • Use energy conservation for distance of closest approach in head-on scattering.

      10. E.1.10 (HL)—Bohr hydrogen levels HL only

        • Bohr hydrogen energy levels: E=-13.6/n^2 eV.

      11. E.1.11 (HL)—Bohr angular momentum HL only

        • Bohr quantization: angular momentum mvr = nh/(2π).

    2. E.2 Quantum physicsHL only

      1. E.2.1 (HL)—Photoelectric effect HL only

        • Photoelectric effect is evidence for particle nature of light.

      2. E.2.2 (HL)—Threshold frequency HL only

        • Photoelectrons require photons above threshold frequency.

      3. E.2.3 (HL)—Photoelectric equation HL only

        • Photoelectric equation: Emax = hf - Φ.

      4. E.2.4 (HL)—Particle diffraction HL only

        • Particle diffraction is evidence for wave nature of matter.

      5. E.2.5 (HL)—Matter wave-particle duality HL only

        • Matter exhibits wave-particle duality.

      6. E.2.6 (HL)—de Broglie wavelength HL only

        • de Broglie wavelength: λ=h/p.

      7. E.2.7 (HL)—Compton scattering HL only

        • Compton scattering is evidence for particle nature of light.

      8. E.2.8 (HL)—Photon wavelength increase HL only

        • Scattered photons have increased wavelength.

      9. E.2.9 (HL)—Compton wavelength shift HL only

        • Compton shift: Δλ = h/(mec)(1-cosθ).

    3. E.3 Radioactive decaySL / HL shared

      1. E.3.1—Isotopes SL / HL shared

        • Isotopes.

      2. E.3.2—Binding energy and mass defect SL / HL shared

        • Nuclear binding energy and mass defect. • Mass defect connects nuclear mass loss with binding energy.

      3. E.3.3—Binding energy curve SL / HL shared

        • Use binding energy per nucleon variation with nucleon number.

      4. E.3.4—Mass-energy equivalence SL / HL shared

        • Mass-energy equivalence in nuclear reactions: E=mc^2.

      5. E.3.5—Strong nuclear force SL / HL shared

        • Strong nuclear force is short-range and attractive between nucleons.

      6. E.3.6—Random radioactive decay SL / HL shared

        • Radioactive decay is random and spontaneous.

      7. E.3.7—Decay nuclear changes SL / HL shared

        • Alpha, beta and gamma decays change nuclear state differently.

      8. E.3.8—Decay equations SL / HL shared

        • Write radioactive decay equations for α, β-, β+ and γ.

      9. E.3.9—Neutrinos and antineutrinos SL / HL shared

        • Existence of neutrinos ν and antineutrinos ν. • Neutrinos and antineutrinos are required in beta decay.

      10. E.3.10—Radiation penetration and ionization SL / HL shared

        • Compare penetration and ionizing ability of α, β and γ radiation.

      11. E.3.11—Activity, count rate and half-life SL / HL shared

        • Activity, count rate and half-life in radioactive decay.

      12. E.3.12—Half-life changes SL / HL shared

        • Use integer half-lives to track activity and count rate changes.

      13. E.3.13—Background radiation SL / HL shared

        • Effect of background radiation on count rate. • Correct count rate for background radiation.

      14. E.3.14 (HL)—Evidence for strong force HL only

        • Evidence supports the strong nuclear force.

      15. E.3.15 (HL)—Neutron-proton ratio HL only

        • Neutron-to-proton ratio affects nuclide stability.

      16. E.3.16 (HL)—Binding energy above A≈60 HL only

        • Binding energy per nucleon is approximately constant above A≈60.

      17. E.3.17 (HL)—Discrete nuclear energy levels HL only

        • Alpha and gamma spectra show discrete nuclear energy levels.

      18. E.3.18 (HL)—Beta spectrum and neutrino HL only

        • Continuous beta spectrum is evidence for the neutrino.

      19. E.3.19 (HL)—Radioactive decay law HL only

        • Radioactive decay law: N=N0e^(-λt).

      20. E.3.20 (HL)—Decay constant meaning HL only

        • Decay constant approximates unit-time decay probability when λt is very small.

      21. E.3.21 (HL)—Activity equation HL only

        • Activity is decay rate: A=λN=λN0e^(-λt).

      22. E.3.22 (HL)—Half-life and decay constant HL only

        • Half-life relation: T1/2 = ln2/λ.

    4. E.4 FissionSL / HL shared

      1. E.4.1—Fission energy release SL / HL shared

        • Energy is released in spontaneous and neutron-induced fission.

      2. E.4.2—Chain reactions SL / HL shared

        • Chain reactions sustain nuclear fission.

      3. E.4.3—Nuclear power plant roles SL / HL shared

        • Know control rods, moderators, heat exchangers and shielding in nuclear power plants. • Control rods, moderators, heat exchangers and shielding each have distinct roles.

      4. E.4.4—Fission products and waste SL / HL shared

        • Know fission products and nuclear waste management issues. • Include properties and management of fission products.

    5. E.5 Fusion and starsSL / HL shared

      1. E.5.1—Stellar equilibrium SL / HL shared

        • Stars are stable when outward radiation pressure balances inward gravity.

      2. E.5.2—Fusion in stars SL / HL shared

        • Fusion is a source of energy in stars.

      3. E.5.3—Fusion conditions SL / HL shared

        • Fusion in stars requires high density and temperature.

      4. E.5.4—Stellar mass and evolution SL / HL shared

        • Stellar mass determines star evolution pathway.

      5. E.5.5—HR diagram regions SL / HL shared

        • Use HR diagram regions to describe star properties. • Include main sequence, red giants/supergiants, white dwarfs and lines of constant radius.

      6. E.5.6—Stellar parallax SL / HL shared

        • Stellar parallax distance: d(pc)=1/p(arcsec).

      7. E.5.7—Stellar radii SL / HL shared

        • Determine stellar radius from luminosity and surface temperature.

  6. S Skills in Physics

    6 topics · 17 objectivesSL / HL shared

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    1. S1.1 Experimental techniquesSL / HL shared

      1. S1.1.1—Safety and ethics SL / HL shared

        • Address safety, ethical and environmental issues.

      2. S1.1.2—Measurement variables SL / HL shared

        • Measure required variables with suitable precision. • Variables include mass, time, length, volume, temperature, force, current, potential difference, angle, sound and light intensity.

    2. S1.2 TechnologySL / HL shared

      1. S1.2.1—Data collection technology SL / HL shared

        • Use sensors, databases, simulations and video/image analysis to collect data.

      2. S1.2.2—Data processing technology SL / HL shared

        • Use spreadsheets, graphs and modelling to process data.

    3. S1.3 MathematicsSL / HL shared

      1. S1.3.1—General mathematics SL / HL shared

        • Use algebra, geometry, trigonometry, logs, rates, estimation and proportional reasoning. • Include equation manipulation and proportional reasoning.

      2. S1.3.2—Vectors and diagrams SL / HL shared

        • Draw, combine, scale and resolve vectors; interpret free-body diagrams.

      3. S1.3.3—Units and numerical values SL / HL shared

        • Use SI units, prefixes, symbols, significant figures and unit checks.

      4. S1.3.4—Uncertainties SL / HL shared

        • Record and propagate absolute, fractional and percentage uncertainties to suitable precision.

      5. S1.3.5—Graphing SL / HL shared

        • Construct, linearize and interpret graphs. • Include uncertainty bars, gradients, intercepts, maxima/minima and areas.

    4. S2.1 Exploring and designingSL / HL shared

      1. S2.1.1—Exploring SL / HL shared

        • Use sources to form research questions, hypotheses and predictions.

      2. S2.1.2—Designing investigations SL / HL shared

        • Design investigations and justify variables, ranges and methods. • Include independent, dependent and controlled variables.

      3. S2.1.3—Controlling variables SL / HL shared

        • Control variables using calibration, insulation, friction/resistance reduction and background corrections.

    5. S2.2 Collecting and processing dataSL / HL shared

      1. S2.2.1—Collecting data SL / HL shared

        • Record sufficient qualitative observations and quantitative data.

      2. S2.2.2—Processing and interpreting data SL / HL shared

        • Process and interpret data, graphs, trends, relationships and outliers.

      3. S2.2.3—Data quality SL / HL shared

        • Assess accuracy, precision, reliability and validity.

    6. S2.3 Concluding and evaluatingSL / HL shared

      1. S2.3.1—Concluding SL / HL shared

        • Justify conclusions and discuss scientific context and uncertainty impacts.

      2. S2.3.2—Evaluating SL / HL shared

        • Evaluate hypotheses, random/systematic errors, limitations and assumptions. • Suggest realistic improvements.